kurgan hypothesis debunked

[146], These movements of both Tocharians and Iranians into East Central Asia were not a mere footnote in the history of China but were part of a much wider picture involving the very foundations of the world's oldest surviving civilization."[147]. Because carbon-14 dating is difficult to interpret for the period between 1650 and 1950, the deaths could have occurred anytime during that span, but with a slightly higher probability in the eighteenth century. Some authors group Thracian and Dacian into a southern Baltic linguistic family. B., P. F. Kuznetsov, and A. P. Semenova. Harney wrote up the findings, in a paper co-authored by twenty-seven other scientists. [306][307] The first wave consisted of the Indo-Aryan migration into the Levant and a migration south-eastward of the Vedic people, over the Hindu Kush into northern India. Alexander left behind commanders and soldiers in some of the territories he conquered, many of whom stayed. The Indo-Aryan migrations involved a number of tribes, who may have infiltrated northern India in series of "waves" of migration. After the Yuezhi were defeated by the Xiongnu, in the 2nd century BCE, a small group, known as the Little Yuezhi, fled to the south, while the majority migrated west to the Ili Valley, where they displaced the Sakas (Scythians). ", "Massive migration from the steppe was a source for Indo-European languages in Europe. [34], He does not include the Maykop culture among those that he considers to be Indo-European-speaking and presumes instead that they spoke a Caucasian language.[35]. In other words, he adds, it wasn't a one-way trip.. Archeologists have long known about the spread of the Yamnaya, but almost nothing in the archeological record showed the brutality of their takeover. We need to be able to talk about these differences clearly, whatever they may be. The pits into which they are said to have sunk are still visible high on a mountainside. In the case of the Illyrian elements a Romance intermediary is inevitable as long as Illyrian was probably extinct in the 2nd century A.D.". Since the bones at the lake were not collected systematically, the finding hinted that the Mediterranean group in total might have been quite large. An ancient human bone is packed with DNA, but, in many cases, ninety-nine per cent or more of that is not human. The scientists concluded that the dead represented two populations: a group of tall Brahmans from the plains of India and a company of shorter, local porters, whose skulls were marked by years of carrying heavy loads with a tumpline looped over their heads. Genetic study revives debate on origin and expansion of Indo-European [82] It developed from a base of languages spoken by Eastern European hunter-gatherers at the Volga steppe plains, with some influences from languages of northern Caucasus hunter-gatherers who migrated from the Caucasus to the lower Volga. [34] Some suggest an origin of Archaic PIE from languages of the (EHG) hunter-gatherers of the Eastern European/Eurasian Steppe, some suggest an origin in or south of the Caucasus, and others suggest a mixed origin from the languages of both aforementioned regions. [30], According to Kroonen et al. the Yamnaya people and the related cultures, seem to have been a mix from Eastern European hunter-gatherers; and people related to the Near East,[87] i.e. The associated culture was initially a tribal, pastoral society centred in the northwestern parts of the Indian subcontinent; it spread after 1200 BCE to the Ganges Plain, as it was shaped by increasing settled agriculture, a hierarchy of four social classes, and the emergence of monarchical, state-level polities. According to Gimbutas, contact of the Yamnaya horizon with late Neolithic Europe cultures results in the "kurganized" Globular Amphora and Baden cultures. So as it turns out, prehistoric North Pontic Steppe populations buried in - Italic Roots [1] The Maykop culture shows the earliest evidence of the beginning Bronze Age, and bronze weapons and artifacts are introduced to the Yamnaya horizon. These were not the remains of a lost army: the bones were from men, women, and children. [web 23] The Dacians and Getae were always considered as Thracians by the ancients (Dio Cassius, Trogus Pompeius, Appian, Strabo and Pliny the Elder), and were both said to speak the same Thracian language. [122] The Samara culture (early 5th millennium BCE),[note 15] north of the Khvalynsk culture, interacted with the Khvalynsk culture,[123] while the archaeological findings seem related to those of the Dniepr-Donets II culture. The "Kurgan Culture," Indo-European Origins, and the Domestication of the Horse: A Reconsideration' ha,v T)cm4d W A ntthlnn-THE CONCEPT OF A "KURGAN CULTURE" derives ultimately from The Aryans, Childe's (1926) seminal study of Indo-European origins. [22] As used by Gimbutas, the term "kurganized" implied that the culture could have been spread by no more than small bands who imposed themselves on local people as an elite. But critics do exist and their objections can be summarized quite simply: Almost all of the arguments for invasion and cultural transformations are far better explained without reference to Kurgan expansions, and most of the evidence so far presented is either totally contradicted by other evidence, or is the result of gross misinterpretation of the cultural history of Eastern, Central, and Northern Europe. [168], The Yamnaya horizon (a.k.a. The steppe theory was first formulated by Otto Schrader (1883) and V. Gordon Childe (1926),[3][4] then systematized in the 1950s by Marija Gimbutas, who used the term to group various prehistoric cultures, including the Yamnaya (or Pit Grave) culture and its predecessors. Early European Neolithic languages were supplanted with the arrival of Indo-Europeans, but according to Iversen and Kroonen left their trace in a layer of mostly agricultural vocabulary in the Indo-European languages of Europe. Of the 20 languages with the largest numbers of native speakers according to Ethnologue, twelve are Indo-European Spanish, English, Hindi, Portuguese, Bengali, Russian, German, Punjabi, Marathi, French, Urdu, and Italian accounting for over 1.7billion native speakers. Nanda Devi was furious at the display of earthly pleasures, and she shoved the dancing girls down into the underworld. Whether we like it or not, people are measuring average differences among groups, he said. Childe assumed that large-scale migrations would have been associated with the prehistoric . [301][302] The similarity of some Phrygian words to Greek ones was observed by Plato in his Cratylus (410a). The majority of the Yuezhi however migrated west to the Ili Valley, where they displaced the Sakas (Scythians). The following suggestions have been made from 2015 to 2019: Soviet and post-Soviet Russian archaeologists have proposed an East Caspian influence, via the eastern Caspian areas, on the formation of the Don-Volga cultures. [47], David Anthony, in his "revised Steppe hypothesis",[60] conjectures that the spread of the Indo-European languages probably did not happen through "chain-type folk migrations", but by the introduction of these languages by ritual and political elites, which were emulated by large groups of people,[61][note 3] a process which he calls "elite recruitment". "[208] Heyd confirms the close connection between Corded Ware and Yamna, but also states that "neither a one-to-one translation from Yamnaya to CWC, nor even the 75:25 ratio as claimed (Haak et al. Again and again, Ive found my own biases and expectations to be wrong, he said. Various steppe-cultures show strong similarities with the Yamna-horizon at the Pontic steppe, while the time-range of several Asian cultures also coincides with the proposed trajectory and time-range of the Indo-European migrations. [19] The first strong archaeological evidence for the domestication of the horse comes from the Sredny Stog culture north of the Azov Sea in Ukraine, and would correspond to an early PIE or pre-PIE nucleus of the 5thmillenniumBC. Gimbutas defined and introduced the term "Kurgan culture" in 1956 with the intention of introducing a "broader term" that would combine Sredny Stog II, Pit Grave, and Corded ware horizons (spanning the 4th to 3rd millennia in much of Eastern and Northern Europe). The work has produced startling insights into who we are as a species, where we have come from, and what we have done to one another. According to some archaeologists, PIE speakers cannot be assumed to have been a single, identifiable people or tribe, but were a group of loosely related populations ancestral to the later, still partially prehistoric, Bronze Age Indo-Europeans. [58] When Yamnaya Indo-European speakers came into contact with the indigenous peoples during the third millennium BCE, they came to dominate the local populations, yet parts of the indigenous lexicon persisted in the formation of Proto-Germanic, thus lending to the Germanic languages the status of Indo-Europeanized languages. (2015) envision a migration of both males and females from the Yamnaya horizon through western Ukraine and Poland into Germany. The grim history of eugenics still casts a shadow over geneticsa field with limitless appeal for white supremacists and others looking to support racist viewseven though, for half a century, geneticists have rejected the idea of large hereditary disparities among human populations for the great majority of traits. The Dacians (/denz/; Latin: Daci, Ancient Greek: ,[269] ,[269] [270]) were an Indo-European people, part of or related to the Thracians. 2007b. The earliest and midrange specimens' mitochondrial DNA (which is inherited from the mother) was almost entirely local. [1], The Indo-Hittite hypothesis postulates a common predecessor which both the Anatolian languages and the other Indo-European languages came from, called Proto-Indo-Hittite. A careful excavation, she believes, might solve the mystery, especially if it is able to plumb the lake itself. At the Balkan, the Vuedol culture (c.30002200 BCE) formed a contact zone between post-Yamnaya and Bell Beaker culture. (2015) shows that the people of the Sintashta culture are genetically related to those of the Corded Ware culture.[70]. Nature had added to the confusion, churning and fracturing the bones with rock slides and avalanches. [84][75][76][19] Their proposal was based on a disputed theory of glottal consonants in PIE. Welsh is the only Celtic language not classified as "endangered" by UNESCO. Search for the Indo-Europeans | Science Research by Haak et al. After anything is touched in the room, the outer pair of gloves must be stripped off and a fresh pair put on, in order to prevent the transfer of DNA from surface to surface. "[206] In supplementary information to Haak et al. Nikitin also believes the dissemination was not as violent as it is often made out to be. India is an ideal country for studying human genetics, ancient and modern. ", According to Damgaard et al. ", According to Haak et al. From there, the route follows steep ridgelines and leads past an ancient stone shrine, festooned with bronze bells and tridents and containing a statue of the elephant deity Ganesha. [39] yet a 2021 study demonstrates that the mummies are remains of locals descending from Ancient North Eurasians and ancient Northeast Asians; meanwhile, the study suggests instead that Afanasevo migrants might have introduced Proto-Tocharian into Dzungaria during the Early Bronze Age before Tocharian languages were recorded in Buddhist texts dating to 500-1000 CE in the Tarim basin. The Maykop culture, c.37003000 BCE,[139] was a major Bronze Age archaeological culture in the Western Caucasus region of Southern Russia. "[182] According to evolutionary geneticist Eske Willerslev, "There was a heavy reduction of Neolithic DNA in temperate Europe, and a dramatic increase of the new Yamnaya genomic component that was only marginally present in Europe prior to 3000 BC."[80]. [279] The first account of Illyrian peoples comes from the Periplus of Pseudo-Scylax, an ancient Greek text of the middle of the 4th century BCE that describes coastal passages in the Mediterranean. Newer findings complicate the story, however. One of the features of Baltic languages is the number of conservative or archaic features retained. Even today, the Ychromosomes of almost all men of Western European ancestry have a high percentage of Yamnaya-derived genes, suggesting that violent conquest may have been widespread. The term is derived from kurgan (), a Turkic loanword in Russian for a tumulus or burial mound. [327] It was "a syncretic mixture of old Central Asian and new Indo-European elements",[327] which borrowed "distinctive religious beliefs and practices"[135] from the BactriaMargiana culture. There are three views amongst scholars about how speakers of Armenian came to be in what is now Armenia. Scholars like Jim G. Shaffer and B. That's what makes it paint such a clear picture [of how the root language spread] and why you can really see the migrations so easily on a map.. Also, the Maykop (and other contemporary Caucasus samples), along with CHG from this date, had significant Anatolian Farmer ancestry "which had spread into the Caucasus from the west after about 5000 BC", while the Yamnaya had a lower percentage which does not fit with a Maykop origin. [web 17], Italic and Celtic languages are commonly grouped together on the basis of features shared by these two branches and no others. A snowstorm forced the first expedition to turn back, but two months later another expedition made it and returned to Calcutta with remains for study. The Achaemenids replaced Median rule from 559 BCE. Recent genetic findings confirm this hypothesis but also raise questions about how the prehistoric language evolved and spread. 2015:211) fits the archaeological record. ", Demkina et al. The PCT posits that the advent of Indo-European languages should be linked to the arrival of Homo sapiens in Europe and Asia from Africa in the Upper Paleolithic. The research on the Indo-Aryan migrations began with the study of the Rig Veda in the mid-19th century by Max Muller, and gradually evolved from a theory of a large scale invasion of a racially and technologically superior people to being a slow diffusion of small numbers of nomadic people that had a disproportionate societal impact on a large urban population.

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